© 2021 by Elsevier GmbH
Bitte nutzen Sie das untenstehende Formular um uns Kritik, Fragen oder Anregungen zukommen zu lassen.
Willkommen
Mehr InformationenB9783437223655.10001-8
10.1016/B9783437223655.10001-8
9783437223655
###
Abb. B6-1

Algorithmus zur Überwachung und Therapie
Betreuung von Neugeborenen diabetischer Mütter (S2k)
6.1
Vorbemerkung
6.2
Diabetische Embryopathie
6.3
Diabetische Fetopathie
6.4
Blutglukosekonzentrationen nach der Geburt
6.5
Folgen neonataler Hypoglykämien
6.6
Diagnose und Behandlung postnataler Hypoglykämien
6.7
Präanalytische und technische Probleme bei der Messung der Glukosekonzentration im Blut bei Neugeborenen
6.8
Empfohlenes Vorgehen
6.8.1
Wahl des Entbindungsorts
6.8.2
Überwachungs- und Therapiealgorithmus
6.9
Stillförderung
6.10
Zusammenfassung der Empfehlungen
-
●
Für alle Schwangeren mit diabetischer Stoffwechsellage: Geburt in einem Krankenhaus mit kinderärztlicher Überwachung und der Möglichkeit einer intravenösen Glukosebehandlung des Kindes ohne Verlegung in ein anderes Haus (perinataler Schwerpunkt).
-
●
Bei Schwangeren mit insulinbedürftiger diabetischer Stoffwechsellage und absehbarer Gefährdung des Kindes: Geburt in einem Zentrum mit neonatologischer Verfügbarkeit rund um die Uhr (Perinatalzentrum).
-
●
Konsequentes Anlegen bzw. Fütterung spätestens 30 min nach der Geburt, danach alle (2–)3 h.
-
●
Obligate präprandiale Blutglukosebestimmung 2–3 h nach der Geburt und noch vor Verlegung aus dem Kreißsaal, weitere präprandiale Messungen vor den nächsten Mahlzeiten.
-
●
Im gleichen Rhythmus klinische Überwachung auf Hypoglykämiesymptome durch eine Hebamme oder Pflegeperson der Mutter-Kind-Station für 24–48 h. Bei hypoglykämieverdächtigen Symptomen sofortige Blutglukosebestimmung.
-
●
Rasche Intervention bei Werten ≤ 35 mg/dl (< 2,0 mM) (bei asymptomatischen Kind) in Form von Nahrung (vorzugsweise Muttermilch, bei nicht gestillten Kindern [hydrolysierte] Formula, Glukosegel); bei Werten < 30 mg/dl (1,7 mM), persistierenden Symptomen oder rezidivierend niedrigen Glukosewerten (≤ 35 mg/dl [< 2,0 mM] bzw. ≤ 45 mg/dl [≤ 2,5 mM] nach perinataler Azidose) zusätzlich Beginn einer intravenösen Glukosegabe. Vermeidung von Bolusgaben.
-
●
Liegen bei asymptomatischen Neugeborenen zwei aufeinanderfolgende Blutglukosewerte > 35 mg/dl (≥ 2,0 mM) (> 45 mg/dl [> 2,5 mM] nach perinataler Azidose), kann in der Regel auf weitere Kontrollen verzichtet werden. Blutglukosewerte < 45 mg/dl (< 2,5 mM) bei Kindern mit einem Lebensalter von mehr als 48 h bedürfen einer weiteren Abklärung.
-
●
Keine routinemäßige Testung auf Hypokalzämie, Hypomagnesiämie, Hyperbilirubinämie oder Polyglobulie, keine routinemäßige Echokardiografie.
-
●
Konsequente prä- und postpartale Stillförderung.
Verfahren zur Konsensbildung
-
●
Gesellschaft für Neonatologie und Pädiatrische Intensivmedizin (C.B., H.S.)
-
●
Deutsche Diabetes-Gesellschaft (T.K.)
-
●
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Hebammenwissenschaft/Deutscher Hebammenverband (E.M.)
-
●
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Perinatalmedizin (B.R.)
-
●
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Gynäkologie und Geburtshilfe (T.S.)
-
●
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin (A.T.)
Literatur
1.
1.Jensen DM, Korsholm L, Ovesen P, et al. Peri-conceptional A1C and risk of serious adverse pregnancy outcome in 933 women with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009;32:1046-8.
2.
2.Hammouda SA, Hakeem R. Role of HbA1c in predicting risk for congenital malformations. Prim Care Diabetes 2015;9:458-64.
3.
3.Vinceti M, Malagoli C, Rothman KJ, et al. Risk of birth defects associated with maternal pregestational diabetes. Eur J Epidemiol 2014;29:411-8.
4.
4.Herrmann J, Brauer M, Scheer I, Barthlen W, Bührer C. Extrahepatic biliary atresia and caudal regression syndrome in an infant of a diabetic mother. J Pediatr Surg 2004;39:E20-2.
5.
5.Ellis H, Kumar R, Kostyrka B. Neonatal small left colon syndrome in the offspring of diabetic mothers-an analysis of 105 children. J Pediatr Surg 2009;44:2343-6.
6.
6.Väärasmäki M, Gissler M, Ritvanen A, Hartikainen AL. Congenital anomalies and first life year surveillance in Type 1 diabetic births. Diabet Med 2002;19:589-93.
7.
7.Yang J, Cummings EA, O'Connell C, Jangaard K. Fetal and neonatal outcomes of diabetic pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 2006;108:644-50.
8.
8.Balsells M, García-Patterson A, Gich I, Corcoy R. Major congenital malformations in women with gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2012;28:252-7.
9.
9.Zhao E, Zhang Y, Zeng X, Liu B. Association between maternal diabetes mellitus and the risk of congenital malformations: A meta-analysis of cohort studies. Drug Discov Ther 2015;9:274-81.
10.
10.Biggio JR, Jr., Chapman V, Neely C, Cliver SP, Rouse DJ. Fetal anomalies in obese women: the contribution of diabetes. Obstet Gynecol 2010;115:290-6.
11.
11.Hay WW, Jr. Care of the infant of the diabetic mother. Curr Diab Rep 2012;12:4-15.
12.
12.Hermansen MC. Nucleated red blood cells in the fetus and newborn. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2001;84:F211-5.
13.
13.Ferrara A, Weiss NS, Hedderson MM, et al. Pregnancy plasma glucose levels exceeding the American Diabetes Association thresholds, but below the National Diabetes Data Group thresholds for gestational diabetes mellitus, are related to the risk of neonatal macrosomia, hypoglycaemia and hyperbilirubinaemia. Diabetologia 2007;50:298-306.
14.
14.Metzger BE, Lowe LP, Dyer AR, et al. Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med 2008;358:1991-2002.
15.
15.HAPO. Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome Study: associations with neonatal anthropometrics. Diabetes 2009;58:453-9.
16.
16.Maayan-Metzger A, Lubin D, Kuint J. Hypoglycemia rates in the first days of life among term infants born to diabetic mothers. Neonatology 2009;96:80-5.
17.
17.Lepercq J, Coste J, Theau A, Dubois-Laforgue D, Timsit J. Factors associated with preterm delivery in women with type 1 diabetes: a cohort study. Diabetes Care 2004;27:2824-8.
18.
18.Ekbom P, Damm P, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Feldt-Rasmussen U, Jensen DM, Mathiesen ER. Elevated third-trimester haemoglobin A 1c predicts preterm delivery in type 1 diabetes. J Diabetes Complications 2008;22:297-302.
19.
19.Rackham O, Paize F, Weindling AM. Cause of death in infants of women with pregestational diabetes mellitus and the relationship with glycemic control. Postgrad Med 2009;121:26-32.
20.
20.Rosenstein MG, Cheng YW, Snowden JM, Nicholson JM, Doss AE, Caughey AB. The risk of stillbirth and infant death stratified by gestational age in women with gestational diabetes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2012;206:309 e1-7.
21.
21.Tennant PW, Glinianaia SV, Bilous RW, Rankin J, Bell R. Pre-existing diabetes, maternal glycated haemoglobin, and the risks of fetal and infant death: a population-based study. Diabetologia 2014;57:285-94.
22.
22.Sugawara D, Maruyama A, Imanishi T, Sugiyama Y, Ichihashi K. Complications in infants of diabetic mothers related to glycated albumin and hemoglobin levels during pregnancy. Pediatr Neonatol 2016;57:496-500
23.
23.García-Patterson A, Aulinas A, Maria MA, et al. Maternal body mass index is a predictor of neonatal hypoglycemia in gestational diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:1623-8.
24.
24.Maslovitz S, Shimonovitz S, Lessing JB, Hochner-Celnikier D. The validity of oral glucose tolerance test after 36 weeks' gestation. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2006;129:19-24.
25.
25.Kozák-Bárány A, Jokinen E, Kero P, Tuominen J, Ronnemaa T, Valimaki I. Impaired left ventricular diastolic function in newborn infants of mothers with pregestational or gestational diabetes with good glycemic control. Early Hum Dev 2004;77:13-22.
26.
26.Hughes RC, Rowan J, Florkowski CM. Is there a role for HbA1c in pregnancy? Curr Diab Rep 2016;16:5.
27.
27.Goldberg JF, Mery CM, Griffiths PS, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support in severe hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy associated with persistent pulmonary hypertension in an infant of a diabetic mother. Circulation 2014;130:1923-5.
28.
28.Elmekkawi SF, Mansour GM, Elsafty MS, Hassanin AS, Laban M, Elsayed HM. Prediction of fetal hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in diabetic pregnancies compared with postnatal outcome. Clin Med Insights Womens Health 2015;8:39-43.
29.
29.Kuhle S, Massicotte P, Chan A, Mitchell L. A case series of 72 neonates with renal vein thrombosis. Data from the 1-800-NO-CLOTS Registry. Thromb Haemost 2004;92:729-33.
30.
30.Marconi AM, Paolini C, Buscaglia M, Zerbe G, Battaglia FC, Pardi G. The impact of gestational age and fetal growth on the maternal-fetal glucose concentration difference. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:937-42.
31.
31.Stanley CA, Rozance PJ, Thornton PS, et al. Re-evaluating "transitional neonatal hypoglycemia": mechanism and implications for management. J Pediatr 2015;166:1520-5 e1.
32.
32.Hoseth E, Joergensen A, Ebbesen F, Moeller M. Blood glucose levels in a population of healthy, breast fed, term infants of appropriate size for gestational age. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2000;83:F117-9.
33.
33.Alkalay AL, Sarnat HB, Flores-Sarnat L, Elashoff JD, Farber SJ, Simmons CF. Population meta-analysis of low plasma glucose thresholds in full-term normal newborns. Am J Perinatol 2006;23:115-9.
34.
34.Diwakar KK, Sasidhar MV. Plasma glucose levels in term infants who are appropriate size for gestation and exclusively breast fed. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2002;87:F46-8.
35.
35.Güemes M, Rahman SA, Hussain K. What is a normal blood glucose? Arch Dis Child 2016;101:569-74.
36.
36.Kaiser JR, Bai S, Gibson N, et al. Association between transient newborn hypoglycemia and fourth-grade achievement test proficiency: A population-based study. JAMA Pediatr 2015;169:913-21.
37.
37.Mola-Schenzle E, Staffler A, Klemme M, et al. Clinically stable very low birthweight infants are at risk for recurrent tissue glucose fluctuations even after fully established enteral nutrition. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2015;100:F126-31.
38.
38.Deshpande S, Ward Platt M. The investigation and management of neonatal hypoglycaemia. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2005;10:351-61.
39.
39.Tin W. Defining neonatal hypoglycaemia: a continuing debate. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2014;19:27-32.
40.
40.Tam EW, Widjaja E, Blaser SI, Macgregor DL, Satodia P, Moore AM. Occipital lobe injury and cortical visual outcomes after neonatal hypoglycemia. Pediatrics 2008;122:507-12.
41.
41.Burns CM, Rutherford MA, Boardman JP, Cowan FM. Patterns of cerebral injury and neurodevelopmental outcomes after symptomatic neonatal hypoglycemia. Pediatrics 2008;122:65-74.
42.
42.Filan PM, Inder TE, Cameron FJ, Kean MJ, Hunt RW. Neonatal hypoglycemia and occipital cerebral injury. J Pediatr 2006;148:552-5.
43.
43.Karimzadeh P, Tabarestani S, Ghofrani M. Hypoglycemia-occipital syndrome: a specific neurologic syndrome following neonatal hypoglycemia? J Child Neurol 2011;26:152-9.
44.
44.Fong CY, Harvey AS. Variable outcome for epilepsy after neonatal hypoglycaemia. Dev Med Child Neurol 2014;56:1093-9.
45.
45.Kerstjens JM, Bocca-Tjeertes IF, de Winter AF, Reijneveld SA, Bos AF. Neonatal morbidities and developmental delay in moderately preterm-born children. Pediatrics 2012;130:e265-72.
46.
46.Tin W, Brunskill G, Kelly T, Fritz S. 15-year follow-up of recurrent "hypoglycemia" in preterm infants. Pediatrics 2012;130:e1497-503.
47.
47.Stenninger E, Flink R, Eriksson B, Sahlen C. Long-term neurological dysfunction and neonatal hypoglycaemia after diabetic pregnancy. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1998;79:F174-9.
48.
48.Brand PL, Molenaar NL, Kaaijk C, Wierenga WS. Neurodevelopmental outcome of hypoglycaemia in healthy, large for gestational age, term newborns. Arch Dis Child 2005;90:78-81.
49.
49.Salhab WA, Wyckoff MH, Laptook AR, Perlman JM. Initial hypoglycemia and neonatal brain injury in term infants with severe fetal acidemia. Pediatrics 2004;114:361-6.
50.
50.Basu P, Som S, Choudhuri N, Das H. Contribution of the blood glucose level in perinatal asphyxia. Eur J Pediatr 2009;168:833-8.
51.
51.Nadeem M, Murray DM, Boylan GB, Dempsey EM, Ryan CA. Early blood glucose profile and neurodevelopmental outcome at two years in neonatal hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy. BMC Pediatr 2011;11:10.
52.
52.Tam EW, Haeusslein LA, Bonifacio SL, et al. Hypoglycemia is associated with increased risk for brain injury and adverse neurodevelopmental outcome in neonates at risk for encephalopathy. J Pediatr 2012;161:88-93.
53.
53.Adane AA, Mishra GD, Tooth LR. Diabetes in pregnancy and childhood cognitive development: A systematic review. Pediatrics 2016;137.
54.
54.McKinlay CJD, Alsweiler JM, Ansell JM, et al. Neonatal glycemia and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 2 years. N Engl J Med 2015;373:1507-18.
55.
55.Cornblath M, Hawdon JM, Williams AF, et al. Controversies regarding definition of neonatal hypoglycemia: suggested operational thresholds. Pediatrics 2000;105:1141-5.
56.
56.Boardman JP, Wusthoff CJ, Cowan FM. Hypoglycaemia and neonatal brain injury. Arch Dis Child Educ Pract Ed 2013;98:2-6.
57.
57.Hawdon JM. Definition of neonatal hypoglycaemia: time for a rethink? Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2013;98:F382-3.
58.
58.Committee on F, Newborn, Adamkin DH. Postnatal glucose homeostasis in late-preterm and term infants. Pediatrics 2011;127:575-9.
59.
59.Aziz K, Dancey P. Screening guidelines for newborns at risk for low blood glucose. Paediatr Child Health 2004;9:723 - 9.
60.
60.Harris DL, Weston PJ, Harding JE. Incidence of neonatal hypoglycemia in babies identified as at risk. J Pediatr 2012;161:787-91.
61.
61.Harris DL, Weston PJ, Signal M, Chase JG, Harding JE. Dextrose gel for neonatal hypoglycaemia (the Sugar Babies Study): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2013;382:2077-83.
62.
62.Harris DL, Alsweiler JM, Ansell JM, et al. Outcome at 2 Years after Dextrose Gel Treatment for Neonatal Hypoglycemia: Follow-Up of a Randomized Trial. J Pediatr 2016;170:54-9 e1-2.
63.
63.Carstensen B, Lindström J, Sundvall J, Borch-Johnsen K, Tuomilehto J. Measurement of blood glucose: comparison between different types of specimens. Ann Clin Biochem 2008;45:140-8.
64.
64.D'Orazio P, Burnett RW, Fogh-Andersen N, et al. Approved IFCC recommendation on reporting results for blood glucose: International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine Scientific Division, Working Group on Selective Electrodes and Point-of-Care Testing (IFCC-SD-WG-SEPOCT). Clin Chem Lab Med 2006;44:1486-90.
65.
65.Ho HT, Yeung WK, Young BW. Evaluation of "point of care" devices in the measurement of low blood glucose in neonatal practice. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2004;89:F356-9.
66.
66.Newman JD, Ramsden CA, Balazs ND. Monitoring neonatal hypoglycemia with the Accu-chek advantage II glucose meter: the cautionary tale of galactosemia. Clin Chem 2002;48:2071.
67.
67.Lyon ME, Gray D, Baskin LB, Dubois JA, Lyon AW. A mathematical model to assess the influence of hematocrit on point of care glucose meter performance. Clin Biochem 2010;43:905-9.
68.
68.Wang L, Sievenpiper JL, de Souza RJ, et al. Hematocrit correction does not improve glucose monitor accuracy in the assessment of neonatal hypoglycemia. Clin Chem Lab Med 2013;51:1627-35.
69.
69.Gambino R, Piscitelli J, Ackattupathil TA, et al. Acidification of blood is superior to sodium fluoride alone as an inhibitor of glycolysis. Clin Chem 2009;55:1019-21.
70.
70.Persson B. Neonatal glucose metabolism in offspring of mothers with varying degrees of hyperglycemia during pregnancy. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2009;14:106-10.
71.
71.Rosenthal M, Ugele B, Lipowsky G, Küster H. The Accutrend sensor glucose analyzer may not be adequate in bedside testing for neonatal hypoglycemia. Eur J Pediatr 2006;165:99-103.
72.
72.Balion C, Grey V, Ismaila A, Blatz S, Seidlitz W. Screening for hypoglycemia at the bedside in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) with the Abbott PCx glucose meter. BMC Pediatr 2006;6:28.
73.
73.Bellini C, Serra G, Risso D, Mazzella M, Bonioli E. Reliability assessment of glucose measurement by HemoCue analyser in a neonatal intensive care unit. Clin Chem Lab Med 2007;45:1549-54.
74.
74.Hoedemaekers CW, Klein Gunnewiek JM, Prinsen MA, Willems JL, Van der Hoeven JG. Accuracy of bedside glucose measurement from three glucometers in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2008;36:3062-6.
75.
75.Diaw CS, Piol N, Urfer J, Werner D, Roth-Kleiner M. Prospective evaluation of three point of care devices for glycemia measurement in a neonatal intensive care unit. Clin Chim Acta 2013;425:104-8.
76.
76.Dietzen DJ, Wilhite TR, Rasmussen M, Sheffield M. Point-of-care glucose analysis in neonates using modified quinoprotein glucose dehydrogenase. Diabetes Technol Ther 2013;15:923-8.
77.
77.Freckmann G, Pleus S, Link M, et al. Accuracy evaluation of four blood glucose monitoring systems in unaltered blood samples in the low glycemic range and blood samples in the concentration range defined by ISO 15197. Diabetes Technol Ther 2015;17:625-34.
78.
78.Chan PC, Rozmanc M, Seiden-Long I, Kwan J. Evaluation of a point-of-care glucose meter for general use in complex tertiary care facilities. Clin Biochem 2009;42:1104-12.
79.
79.Vanavanan S, Santanirand P, Chaichanajarernkul U, et al. Performance of a new interference-resistant glucose meter. Clin Biochem 2010;43:186-92.
80.
80.Lockyer MG, Fu K, Edwards RM, et al. Evaluation of the Nova StatStrip glucometer in a pediatric hospital setting. Clin Biochem 2014;47:840-3.
81.
81.NICE. Management of diabetes from preconception to the postnatal period: summary of NICE guidance. BMJ 2008;336:714-7.
82.
82.Maayan-Metzger A, Schushan-Eisen I, Lubin D, Moran O, Kuint J, Mazkereth R. Delivery room breastfeeding for prevention of hypoglycaemia in infants of diabetic mothers. Fetal Pediatr Pathol 2014;33:23-8.
83.
83.Stevens J, Schmied V, Burns E, Dahlen H. Immediate or early skin-to-skin contact after a Caesarean section: a review of the literature. Matern Child Nutr 2014;10:456-73.
84.
84.Chertok IR, Raz I, Shoham I, Haddad H, Wiznitzer A. Effects of early breastfeeding on neonatal glucose levels of term infants born to women with gestational diabetes. J Hum Nutr Diet 2009;22:166-9.
85.
85.East CE, Dolan WJ, Forster DA. Antenatal breast milk expression by women with diabetes for improving infant outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014:CD010408.
86.
86.Weston PJ, Harris DL, Battin M, Brown J, Hegarty JE, Harding JE. Oral dextrose gel for the treatment of hypoglycaemia in newborn infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016:CD011027.
87.
87.Hegarty JE, Harding JE, Gamble GD, Crowther CA, Edlin R, Alsweiler JM. Prophylactic oral dextrose gel for newborn babies at risk of neonatal hypoglycaemia: a randomised controlled dose-finding trial (the Pre-hPOD study). PLoS Med 2016;13:e1002155.
88.
88.Wight N, Marinelli KA. ABM clinical protocol #1: guidelines for blood glucose monitoring and treatment of hypoglycemia in term and late-preterm neonates, revised 2014. Breastfeed Med 2014;9:173-9.
89.
89.Thornton PS, Stanley CA, De Leon DD, et al. Recommendations from the Pediatric Endocrine Society for evaluation and management of persistent hypoglycemia in neonates, infants, and children. J Pediatr 2015;167:238-45.
90.
90.Gillman MW, Rifas-Shiman SL, Camargo CA, Jr., et al. Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breastfed as infants. JAMA 2001;285:2461-7.
91.
91.Harder T, Bergmann R, Kallischnigg G, Plagemann A. Duration of breastfeeding and risk of overweight: a meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol 2005;162:397-403.
92.
92.Schaefer-Graf UM, Hartmann R, Pawliczak J, et al. Association of breast-feeding and early childhood overweight in children from mothers with gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2006;29:1105-7.
93.
93.Clausen TD, Mathiesen ER, Hansen T, et al. Overweight and the metabolic syndrome in adult offspring of women with diet-treated gestational diabetes mellitus or type 1 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;94:2464-70.
94.
94.Schaefer-Graf UM, Pawliczak J, Passow D, et al. Birth weight and parental BMI predict overweight in children from mothers with gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005;28:1745-50.
95.
95.Kreichauf S, Pflüger M, Hummel S, Ziegler AG. Einfluss des Stillens auf das Risiko für Übergewicht bei Kindern von Müttern mit Typ-1-Diabetes. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2008;133:1173-7.
96.
96.Hummel S, Hummel M, Knopff A, Bonifacio E, Ziegler AG. Stillverhalten bei Frauen mit Gestationsdiabetes. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2008;133:180-4.
97.
97.Much D, Beyerlein A, Rossbauer M, Hummel S, Ziegler AG. Beneficial effects of breastfeeding in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Mol Metab 2014;3:284-92.
98.
98.Taddio A, Shah V, Gilbert-MacLeod C, Katz J. Conditioning and hyperalgesia in newborns exposed to repeated heel lances. JAMA 2002;288:857-61.
99.
99.Ensenauer R, Brandlhuber L, Burgmann M, Sobotzki C, Zwafink C, Anzill S, Holdt L, Teupser D, Hasbargen U, Netz H, Roscher AA, von Kries R. Obese nondiabetic pregnancies and high maternal glycated hemoglobin at delivery as an indicator of offspring and maternal postpartum risks: The Prospective PEACHES Mother-Child Cohort. Clin Chem 2015;61:1381-90.