© 2021 by Elsevier GmbH
Bitte nutzen Sie das untenstehende Formular um uns Kritik, Fragen oder Anregungen zukommen zu lassen.
Willkommen
Mehr InformationenBM21-9783437225154.10001-8
10.1016/BM21-9783437225154.10001-8
M21-9783437225154
###
Abb. M21-1

Algorithmus zur Diagnostik und Therapie einer Tachyarrhythmie im Kindesalter
Abb. M21-2

EKG bei einem Patienten mit molekulargenetisch nachgewiesenem LQT-Syndrom Typ 1. Die QTc-Dauer beträgt 692 ms.
Abb. M21-3

Typisches EKG bei BRS mit ST-Streckenhebungen und negativen T-Wellen in den rechtspräkordialen Ableitungen.
Abb. M21-4

EKG bei ARVC mit ε-Wellen (Pfeil), die dem QRS-Komplex folgen und einer verzögerten rechtsventrikulären Depolarisation entsprechen (Ableitung I, II und III).
Therapie der akuten Episode einer SVT mit regelmäßigen Abständen der QRS-Komplexe und hämodynamischer Stabilität (Auswahl; s. Text und › Abb. M21-1)
Vagale Manöver | ||
Adenosin | 0,1–0,3 mg/kg i.v. als rascher Bolus, max. 12 mg | (59) |
Propafenon | 1–2 mg/kg langsam i.v., Dauerinfusion 4–7 µg/kg/min | (138) |
Flecainid | 1 mg/kg langsam i.v. | (139) |
Amiodaron | Initial 5 mg/kg i.v. über 20–30 min, Dauerinfusion 10– max. 20 mg/kg/Tag | (56) |
Verapamil ab Schulalter1 | 0,1 mg/kg, max. 5 mg | (140) |
Esmolol | Initial 0,1–0,5 mg/kg/min i.v., Dauerinfusion 50–200 µg/kg/min2 | (141) |
1
Cave: Nicht bei Neugeborenen und Säuglingen!
2
Cave: Hypotension!
Oral-medikamentöse Dauertherapie einer SVT (nach Substanzklassen geordnet; die Auswahl des Medikaments erfolgt anhand der folgenden Kriterien: Alter des Kindes, kardiale Anatomie sowie Erfahrung des verantwortlichen Arztes)
Flecainid | 3–7 mg/kg in 2 ED | (142) |
Propafenon | 10 mg/kg in 3 ED | (143, 144) |
Betablocker | Z.B. Propranolol 2 mg/kg in 3 ED | (15) |
Amiodaron | Erhaltungsdosis 3–5 mg/kg in 1 ED | (145) |
Sotalol | 2–6 mg/kg in 2 ED | (146) |
Verapamil ab Schulalter1 | 4–10 mg/kg in 3 ED | (147) |
Digoxin1 | 0,2 mg/m2 in 2 ED, in Kombination |
1
Nicht bei Präexzitationssyndrom!
ED = Tagesdosierung verteilt auf Einzeldosen
Diaplazentare Therapie von fetalen Tachyarrhythmien (modifiziert nach Donofrio [21])
Supraventrikuläre Tachykardien (HF ≥ 220/min) ohne Hydrops, normale LV-Funktion | ||
Mittel der 1. Wahl | Digoxin | Aufsättigung mit 0,3–0,5 mg alle 8 h i. v. für 24 h (Spiegelkontrolle) oder 0,25 mg alle 6 h p. o. über 48–72 h; Erhaltungsdosis 0,25 mg alle 8 h p. o. (maternaler Zielspiegel 1,5–2,0 (2,5) ng/ml) |
Flecainid | 50–150 mg p. o. alle 8–12 h (max. 400 mg/Tag) | |
Sotalol | 80–160 mg alle 12 h p. o. (ggf. steigern auf alle 8 h; max. 480 mg/Tag) | |
Mittel der 2. Wahl | Amiodaron | Aufsättigung 450–600 mg p. o. alle 6 h für 48 h bzw. bei vorausgegangener antiarrhythmischer Therapie 200–400 mg p. o. alle 6 h; Erhaltungsdosis 200 mg p. o./Tag (ggf. bis 600 mg/Tag) |
Vorhofflattern | ||
Mittel der 1.Wahl | Sotalol | Dosierung s. o. |
Mittel der 2.Wahl | Digoxin | Dosierung s. o. |
Amiodaron | Dosierung s. o. | |
Hydrops fetalis bzw. eingeschränkte linksventrikuläre Funktion bei SVT oder Vorhofflattern | ||
Operative Entbindung bei nahem Geburtstermin!Diaplazentare Therapie wie oben, jedoch frühere Kombinationstherapie; evtl. direkte fetale Therapie über Nabelvene | ||
Ventrikuläre Tachykardie | ||
Mittel der 1. Wahl | Magnesium | Initial 2–4(–6) g i. v. über 20 min, danach 1(–2) g/h für max. 48 h mit Spiegelüberwachung |
Lidocain | 1–1,5 mg/kg i. v., danach 1–4 mg/min | |
Propranolol | 20–80 mg p. o. alle 6 h | |
Mexiletin | 200–300 mg p. o. alle 8 h | |
Mittel der 2. Wahl | Flecainid, Sotalol, Amiodaron | Dosierungen s. o.Cave: Kontraindiziert bei Verdacht auf LQTS! |
Therapieindikationen bei SVT auf der Grundlage einer akzessorischen Leitungsbahn und AVNRT
Indikationsklasse | Medikamentöse Therapie | Ablationstherapie |
I | Rezidivierende, anhaltende symptomatische SVT |
|
IIa | Rezidivierende, nicht anhaltende SVT, Herzfehler |
|
III |
|
|
Therapieindikationen bei PJRT und FAT
Indikationsklasse | Medikamentöse Therapie | Ablationstherapie |
I | Chronisch permanente und paroxysmale PJRT/FAT, erhöhtes Frequenzniveau, LV-SF < 30% |
|
IIa | Chronisch permanente PJRT/FAT, erhöhtes mittleres HF-Niveau, LV-SF > 30% |
|
III | Seltene Episoden einer PJRT/FAT, LV-SF > 30%, keine Symptome | PJRT/FAT, Gewicht < 15 kg, LV-SF > 30%, seltene Episoden, normale Frequenz, normale LV-SF |
Therapieindikationen bei IART und Vorhofflattern bei angeborenen Herzfehlern (prä- und postoperativ)
Indikationsklasse | Medikamentöse Therapie | Ablationstherapie |
I | Rezidivierende anhaltende IART/AFL |
|
IIa | Seltene Rezidive | Seltene Rezidive unter medikamentöser Therapie |
III | Nicht anhaltend, selten | Nicht anhaltend, selten |
Empfohlene Energie bei externer Kardioversion/Defibrillation
Energie (J/kg KG), möglichst biphasisch | ||
1. Schock | Bei Erfolglosigkeit | |
Kardioversion (synchronisiert) | 1 | 2 |
Defibrillation (asynchron) | 4 | 4 |
Therapieindikationen der VT
Indikationsklasse | Medikamentöse Therapie | Ablationstherapie |
I |
|
|
IIa |
|
Ablation von auslösenden ventrikulären Foci bei idiopathischem VF |
IIb | Keine | |
III |
|
|
Übersicht über die Formen der idiopathischen VT
Tachykardieform | EKG bei SR/VT | Akuttherapie | Dauertherapie | Dignität |
Idiopathische RVOT-VT (getriggerte Aktivität) |
|
Adenosin | Betablocker, HF-Ablation | VT meist nicht anhaltend, selten Symptome; spontanes Sistieren möglich |
Idiopathische LV-VT (Reentry) |
|
Verapamil | Betablocker, Kalziumantagonisten, HF-Ablation | Häufiger symptomatisch |
Differenzialdiagnose: idioventrikulärer Rhythmus |
|
Keine | Keine | Benigne |
HF = Hochfrequenzstrom, LSB = Linksschenkelblock, LV = linksventrikulär, RSB = Rechtsschenkelblock, RVOT = rechtsventrikulärer Ausflusstrakt, SR = Sinusrhythmus, VT = ventrikuläre Tachykardie
Referenzwerte für QTc (in ms, korrigiert nach Bazett; s. auch [31])
1–15 Jahre | Männer > 15 Jahre | Frauen > 15 Jahre | |
Normal | < 440 | < 430 | < 450 |
Grenzwertig | 440–460 | 430–450 | 450–470 |
Verlängert | > 460 | > 450 | > 470 |
LQTS – diagnostische Schwartz-Kriterien (modifiziert nach [31])
Kriterien | Punkte |
Elektrokardiografische Kriterien | |
|
3 |
|
2 |
|
1 |
|
2 |
|
1 |
|
1 |
|
1 |
|
0,5 |
Klinische Kriterien | |
|
2 |
|
1 |
|
0,5 |
Familienanamnese | |
|
1 |
|
0,5 |
Wahrscheinlichkeit eines LQTS:
– ≤ 1 Punkt: niedrig
– 2–3 Punkte: mittel
– > 3,5 Punkte: hoch
Tachykarde Herzrhythmusstörungen (S2k)
1
Beschlossen vom Vorstand der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Pädiatrische Kardiologie am 28.11.2018.
21.1
Definition, Klassifikation und Basisinformation
21.2
Epidemiologie, Prävalenz, assoziierte Läsionen, Syndrome
21.3
Pathophysiologie, Hämodynamik
21.4
Körperliche Befunde und Leitsymptome
21.5
Diagnostik
21.5.1
Zielsetzung diagnostischer Verfahren
21.5.2
Apparative Diagnostik (primäre Nachweisdiagnostik)
Fetale Echokardiografie
-
●
Ausschluss von begleitenden Fehlbildungen
-
●
Bestimmung der kardialen Funktion
-
●
Bewertung der hämodynamischen Auswirkungen auf den Fetus
-
●
Bestimmung des Tachykardiemechanismus und der fetalen Herzfrequenz
Elektrokardiografische Diagnostik
-
●
Dokumentation einer spontanen Tachykardie: Standard-12-Kanal-EKG, Langzeit-EKG (bei sporadischen und chronisch permanenten Tachykardien), Belastungs-EKG (belastungsinduzierte Arrhythmien, chronotrope Kompetenz, Effizienz einer Betablockertherapie), Event-Rekorder bei unklaren Synkopen (2), interner Speicher bei Patienten mit Herzschrittmachern und ICD
-
●
Identifikation von P-Wellen bei Tachykardie durch transösophageales und epikardiales EKG zur Diagnosestellung und Stimulation (3)
-
●
Suche nach EKG-Markern pathologischer Erregungsausbreitungs- und Rückbildungsmuster im Standard-EKG: PräexzitationssyndromePräexzitationssyndrome, Long-QT-Syndrom (LQTS), Short-QT-Syndrom (SQTS), Brugada-Syndrom (BRS), arrhythmogene rechtsventrikuläre KardiomyopathieKardiomyopathiearrhythmogene rechtsventrikuläre (ARVC) (ARVC), angeborene Herzfehler (z.B. QRS-Breite ≥ 180 ms bei Patienten nach Korrektur einer Fallot-Tetralogie [4])
Medikamentöse Provokationstests
-
●
Adenosin zur Differenzialdiagnose und Therapie bei Vorhoftachykardien und bei Tachykardien mit verbreiterten QRS-Komplexen
-
●
Ajmalin/Flecainid bei Brugada-Syndrom (Expression des typischen EKG-Musters [5])
-
●
Adrenalin bei Verdacht auf LQTS Typ 1 (mangelnde QTc-Verkürzung [6]) und vereinzelt bei katecholaminsensitiver polymorpher ventrikulärer Tachykardie (CPVT [7])
Elektrophysiologische Diagnostik
-
●
SVT und VT durch Reentry-Mechanismus zur Diagnosestellung/Identifizierung des elektrophysiologischen Mechanismus vor einer Ablationsbehandlung
-
●
Risikostratifizierung bei Kindern und Jugendlichen > 8 Jahre mit permanenter Präexzitation (29)
-
●
Potenziell verwendbar zur Risikostratifizierung bei Patienten mit einem angeborenen Herzfehler, speziell Fallot-Tetralogie (89)
-
●
Fraglicher Nutzen bei BRS und dilatativer KardiomyopathieKardiomyopathiedilatative (DCM) (DCM)
-
●
Nicht indiziert bei LQTS, SQTS, CPVT, Kardiomyopathiehypertrophe obstruktive (HOCMhypertropher obstruktiver (HOCM) und Kardiomyopathiehypertrophe nichtobstruktive (HNCM)nichtobstruktiver Kardiomyopatie (HNCM)
Hämodynamische und bildgebende Diagnostik
Molekulargenetische Diagnostik
-
●
Indiziert bei LQTS, SQTS, CPVT, HCM, BRS und ARVC, um Genmutationsträger (einschließlich asymptomatischer Familienmitglieder) zu identifizieren sowie das Risiko einzustufen (z.B. LQTS, HCM)
-
●
Bedingt hilfreich bei DCM und angeborenen Herzfehlern
Laboruntersuchungen
21.5.3
Differenzialdiagnose
21.6
Therapie
21.6.1
Grundsätze der Behandlung
-
●
Vagus-Manöver (bei SVT: z. B. Eisbeutel auf Gesicht zur Auslösung des Tauchreflexes, Bauchpresse usw.)
-
●
Pharmakologische Interventionen (› Abb. M21-1, › Tab. M21-1)
-
●
Transösophageale bzw. selten endokardiale Überstimulation
-
●
Externe Kardioversion (10–12) (› Abb. M21-1)
-
●
Antiarrhythmika bei SVT (› Tab. M21-2)
-
●
Katheterablation des arrhythmogenen Substrats der Tachyarrhythmie
-
●
Herzschrittmacher bei bradykardieinduzierten Tachykardien (LQTS)
-
●
Chirurgische Eingriffe (z.B. linksseitige kardiale sympathische Denervation bei CPVT und LQTS (13, 14)
Medikamentöse Akuttherapie einer SVT im Kindesalter
Medikamentöse Dauertherapie einer SVT im Kindesalter
21.6.2
Fetale Tachykardien
21.6.3
Einzelne Tachykardieformen
Supraventrikuläre Tachykardien (SVT)
Supraventrikuläre Tachykardien auf der Grundlage akzessorischer Leitungsbahnen (Präexzitationssyndrome)
Erläuterungen
AV-Knoten-Reentrytachykardien
Permanente Form der junktionalen Reentrytachykardie (PJRT) und fokale atriale Tachykardie (FAT)
Postoperative junktionale ektope Tachykardie (JET)
Intraatriale Reentrytachykardien (IART) inklusive Vorhofflattern
Vorhofflimmern
21.6.4
Ventrikuläre Extrasystolen
-
●
Isolierte uniforme ventrikuläre Extrasystolen (auch häufig, zum Teil > 1/min, im LZ-EKG entsprechend > 1440/Tag)
-
●
Altersentsprechender Normalbefund des Oberflächen-EKG, QTc < 0,44 (bei Mädchen < 0,46)
-
●
Suppression der Extrasystolie unter Belastung, Wiederauftreten in der Erholungsphase
-
●
Normale intrakardiale Strukturen, normale linksventrikuläre Pumpfunktion
-
●
Normales Kardio-MRT (nicht obligatorisch)
21.6.5
Ventrikuläre Tachykardien (VT)
Pränatale VT
Akuttherapie der VT/VF
-
●
Idiopathische VT
-
●
Angeborene Arrhythmiesyndrome (Ionenkanalerkrankungen)
-
●
VT bei Kardiomyopathien
-
●
VT bei angeborenen Herzfehlern
Idiopathische VT
-
●
Ausflusstrakttachykardien aus dem rechts- oder linksventrikulären Ausflusstrakt inklusive proximaler Pulmonalarterie und Aortensinus.
-
●
Verapamil-sensitive faszikuläre linksventrikuläre Tachykardie (Typ Belhassen; im EKG superiore Achse und Rechtsschenkelblock).
-
●
Andere Ursprungslokalisationen (AV-Klappenanuli, Papillarmuskeln, epikardial) sind im Kindesalter extrem selten und werden hier nicht berücksichtigt.
Angeborene Arrhythmiesyndrome (Ionenkanalerkrankungen)
Long-QT-Syndrom (LQTS)

Short-QT-Syndrom (SQTS)
Brugada-Syndrom (BRS)
Katecholaminsensitive polymorphe ventrikuläre Tachykardie (CPVT)
VT bei Kardiomyopathien
Arrhythmogene rechtsventrikuläre Kardiomyopathie (ARVC)
Hypertrophe obstruktive (HOCM) oder nichtobstruktive (HNCM) Kardiomyopathie
Dilatative Kardiomyopathie (DCM)
VT bei angeborenen Herzfehlern
21.7
Nachsorge
21.8
Durchführung der Diagnostik und Therapie
Literatur
1.
Schmidt KG, Ulmer HE, Silverman NH, Kleinman CS, Copel JA. Perinatal outcome of fetal complete atrioventricular block: A multicenter experience. J Am Coll Cardiol 17:1360–1366, 1991.
2.
Gass M, Apitz C, Salehi-Gilani S, Ziemer G, Hofbeck M. Use of the implantable loop recorder in children and adolescents. Cardiol Young 16:572–578, 2006.
3.
Janousek J. Diagnostic and therapeutic use of transesophageal atrial pacing in children. Int J Cardiol 25:7-14, 1989.
4.
Gatzoulis MA, Till JA, Somerville J, Redington AN. Mechanoelectrical interaction in tetralogy of fallot. Qrs prolongation relates to right ventricular size and predicts malignant ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death. Circulation 92:231–237, 1995.
5.
Brugada R, Brugada P, Brugada J. Electrocardiogram interpretation and class i blocker challenge in brugada syndrome. J Electrocardiol 39:S115–118, 2006.
6.
Vyas H, Ackerman MJ. Epinephrine qt stress testing in congenital long qt syndrome. J Electrocardiol 39:S107–113, 2006.
7.
Marjamaa A, Hiippala A, Arrhenius B, Lahtinen AM, Kontula K, Toivonen L, Happonen JM, Swan H. Intravenous epinephrine infusion test in diagnosis of catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 23:194–199, 2012.
8.
Alexander ME, Walsh EP, Saul JP, Epstein MR, Triedman JK. Value of programmed ventricular stimulation in patients with congenital heart disease. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 10:1033–1044, 1999.
9.
Khairy P, Landzberg MJ, Gatzoulis MA, Lucron H, Lambert J, Marcon F, Alexander ME, Walsh EP. Value of programmed ventricular stimulation after tetralogy of fallot repair: A multicenter study. Circulation 109:1994–2000, 2004.
10.
de Caen AR, Berg MD, Chameides L, Gooden CK, Hickey RW, Scott HF, Sutton RM, Tijssen JA, Topjian A, van der Jagt EW, Schexnayder SM, Samson RA. Part 12: Pediatric advanced life support: 2015 american heart association guidelines update for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation 132:S526–542, 2015.
11.
Maconochie IK, de Caen AR, Aickin R, Atkins DL, Biarent D, Guerguerian AM, Kleinman ME, Kloeck DA, Meaney PA, Nadkarni VM, Ng KC, Nuthall G, Reis AG, Shimizu N, Tibballs J, Pintos RV, Pediatric Basic Life S, Pediatric Advanced Life Support Chapter C. Part 6: Pediatric basic life support and pediatric advanced life support: 2015 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Resuscitation 95:e147–168, 2015.
12.
Kleinman ME, de Caen AR, Chameides L, Atkins DL, Berg RA, Berg MD, Bhanji F, Biarent D, Bingham R, Coovadia AH, Hazinski MF, Hickey RW, Nadkarni VM, Reis AG, Rodriguez-Nunez A, Tibballs J, Zaritsky AL, Zideman D, Pediatric B, Advanced Life Support Chapter C. Part 10: Pediatric basic and advanced life support: 2010 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Circulation 122:S466–515, 2010.
13.
Collura CA, Johnson JN, Moir C, Ackerman MJ. Left cardiac sympathetic denervation for the treatment of long qt syndrome and catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia using video-assisted thoracic surgery. Heart Rhythm 6:752–759, 2009.
14.
Schneider HE, Steinmetz M, Krause U, Kriebel T, Ruschewski W, Paul T. Left cardiac sympathetic denervation for the management of life-threatening ventricular tachyarrhythmias in young patients with catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia and long qt syndrome. Clin Res Cardiol 102:33–42, 2013.
15.
Pfammatter JP, Stocker FP. Results of a restrictive use of antiarrhythmic drugs in the chronic treatment of atrioventricular reentrant tachycardias in infancy and childhood. Am J Cardiol 82:72–75, 1998.
16.
Fish FA, Gillette PC, Benson DW, Jr. Proarrhythmia, cardiac arrest and death in young patients receiving encainide and flecainide. The pediatric electrophysiology group. J Am Coll Cardiol 18:356–365, 1991.
17.
Fenrich AL, Jr., Perry JC, Friedman RA. Flecainide and amiodarone: Combined therapy for refractory tachyarrhythmias in infancy. J Am Coll Cardiol 25:1195–1198, 1995.
18.
Strasburger JF, Wakai RT. Fetal cardiac arrhythmia detection and in utero therapy. Nat Rev Cardiol 7:277–290, 2010.
19.
Krapp M, Kohl T, Simpson JM, Sharland GK, Katalinic A, Gembruch U. Review of diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of fetal atrial flutter compared with supraventricular tachycardia. Heart 89:913–917, 2003.
20.
Hornberger LK, Sahn DJ. Rhythm abnormalities of the fetus. Heart 93:1294–1300, 2007.
21.
Donofrio MT, Moon-Grady AJ, Hornberger LK, Copel JA, Sklansky MS, Abuhamad A, Cuneo BF, Huhta JC, Jonas RA, Krishnan A, Lacey S, Lee W, Michelfelder EC, Sr., Rempel GR, Silverman NH, Spray TL, Strasburger JF, Tworetzky W, Rychik J, American Heart Association Adults With Congenital Heart Disease Joint Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Y, Council on Clinical Cardiology CoCS, Anesthesia, Council on C, Stroke N. Diagnosis and treatment of fetal cardiac disease: A scientific statement from the american heart association. Circulation 129:2183–2242, 2014.
22.
Oudijk MA, Michon MM, Kleinman CS, Kapusta L, Stoutenbeek P, Visser GH, Meijboom EJ. Sotalol in the treatment of fetal dysrhythmias. Circulation 101:2721–2726, 2000.
23.
Jaeggi ET, Carvalho JS, De Groot E, Api O, Clur SA, Rammeloo L, McCrindle BW, Ryan G, Manlhiot C, Blom NA. Comparison of transplacental treatment of fetal supraventricular tachyarrhythmias with digoxin, flecainide, and sotalol: Results of a nonrandomized multicenter study. Circulation 124:1747–1754, 2011.
24.
Shah A, Moon-Grady A, Bhogal N, Collins KK, Tacy T, Brook M, Hornberger LK. Effectiveness of sotalol as first-line therapy for fetal supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. Am J Cardiol 109:1614–1618, 2012.
25.
Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, Braverman LE, Martino E. Effects of amiodarone administration during pregnancy on neonatal thyroid function and subsequent neurodevelopment. J Endocrinol Invest 24:116–130, 2001.
26.
Cuneo BF, Strasburger JF. Management strategy for fetal tachycardia. Obstet Gynecol 96:575–581, 2000.
27.
Parilla BV, Strasburger JF, Socol ML. Fetal supraventricular tachycardia complicated by hydrops fetalis: A role for direct fetal intramuscular therapy. Am J Perinatol 13:483–486, 1996.
28.
Bergmans MG, Jonker GJ, Kock HC. Fetal supraventricular tachycardia. Review of the literature. Obstet Gynecol Surv 40:61–68, 1985.
29.
Santinelli V, Radinovic A, Manguso F, Vicedomini G, Gulletta S, Paglino G, Mazzone P, Ciconte G, Sacchi S, Sala S, Pappone C. The natural history of asymptomatic ventricular pre-excitation a long-term prospective follow-up study of 184 asymptomatic children. J Am Coll Cardiol 53:275–280, 2009.
30.
Pappone C, Manguso F, Santinelli R, Vicedomini G, Sala S, Paglino G, Mazzone P, Lang CC, Gulletta S, Augello G, Santinelli O, Santinelli V. Radiofrequency ablation in children with asymptomatic wolff-parkinson-white syndrome. N Engl J Med 351:1197–1205, 2004.
31.
Schwartz PJ, Garson A, Jr., Paul T, Stramba-Badiale M, Vetter VL, Wren C, European Society of C. Guidelines for the interpretation of the neonatal electrocardiogram. A task force of the european society of cardiology. Eur Heart J 23:1329–1344, 2002.
32.
Pediatric, Congenital Electrophysiology S, Heart Rhythm S, American College of Cardiology F, American Heart A, American Academy of P, Canadian Heart Rhythm S, Cohen MI, Triedman JK, Cannon BC, Davis AM, Drago F, Janousek J, Klein GJ, Law IH, Morady FJ, Paul T, Perry JC, Sanatani S, Tanel RE. Paces/hrs expert consensus statement on the management of the asymptomatic young patient with a wolff-parkinson-white (wpw, ventricular preexcitation) electrocardiographic pattern: Developed in partnership between the pediatric and congenital electrophysiology society (paces) and the heart rhythm society (hrs). Endorsed by the governing bodies of paces, hrs, the american college of cardiology foundation (accf), the american heart association (aha), the american academy of pediatrics (aap), and the canadian heart rhythm society (chrs). Heart Rhythm 9:1006–1024, 2012.
33.
Perry JC, Garson A, Jr. Supraventricular tachycardia due to wolff-parkinson-white syndrome in children: Early disappearance and late recurrence. J Am Coll Cardiol 16:1215–1220, 1990.
34.
Philip Saul J, Kanter RJ, Writing C, Abrams D, Asirvatham S, Bar-Cohen Y, Blaufox AD, Cannon B, Clark J, Dick M, Freter A, Kertesz NJ, Kirsh JA, Kugler J, LaPage M, McGowan FX, Miyake CY, Nathan A, Papagiannis J, Paul T, Pflaumer A, Skanes AC, Stevenson WG, Von Bergen N, Zimmerman F. Paces/hrs expert consensus statement on the use of catheter ablation in children and patients with congenital heart disease: Developed in partnership with the pediatric and congenital electrophysiology society (paces) and the heart rhythm society (hrs). Endorsed by the governing bodies of paces, hrs, the american academy of pediatrics (aap), the american heart association (aha), and the association for european pediatric and congenital cardiology (aepc). Heart Rhythm 13:e251–289, 2016.
35.
Kubus P, Vit P, Gebauer RA, Zaoral L, Peichl P, Fiala M, Janousek J. Long-term results of paediatric radiofrequency catheter ablation: A population-based study. Europace 16:1808–1813, 2014.
36.
Kugler JD, Danford DA, Houston KA, Felix G, Pediatric Radiofrequency Ablation Registry of the Pediatric Radiofrequency Ablation Registry of the Pediatric Electrophysiology S. Pediatric radiofrequency catheter ablation registry success, fluoroscopy time, and complication rate for supraventricular tachycardia: Comparison of early and recent eras. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 13:336–341, 2002.
37.
Van Hare GF, Javitz H, Carmelli D, Saul JP, Tanel RE, Fischbach PS, Kanter RJ, Schaffer M, Dunnigan A, Colan S, Serwer G, Participating Members of the Pediatric Electrophysiology S. Prospective assessment after pediatric cardiac ablation: Recurrence at 1 year after initially successful ablation of supraventricular tachycardia. Heart Rhythm 1:188–196, 2004.
38.
Friedman RA, Walsh EP, Silka MJ, Calkins H, Stevenson WG, Rhodes LA, Deal BJ, Wolff GS, Demaso DR, Hanisch D, Van Hare GF. Naspe expert consensus conferen Radiofrequency catheter ablation in children with and without congenital heart disease. Report of the writing committee. North american society of pacing and electrophysiology. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 25:1000–1017, 2002.
39.
Swissa M, Birk E, Dagan T, Fogelman M, Einbinder T, Bruckheimer E, Goldenberg I, Klempfner R, Kirsh JA, Fogelman R. Cryotherapy ablation of parahisian accessory pathways in children. Heart Rhythm 12:917–925, 2015.
40.
Gellis LA, Ceresnak SR, Gates GJ, Nappo L, Pass RH. Reducing patient radiation dosage during pediatric svt ablations using an "alara" radiation reduction protocol in the modern fluoroscopic era. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 36:688–694, 2013.
41.
Mah DY, Miyake CY, Sherwin ED, Walsh A, Anderson MJ, Western K, Abrams DJ, Alexander ME, Cecchin F, Walsh EP, Triedman JK. The use of an integrated electroanatomic mapping system and intracardiac echocardiography to reduce radiation exposure in children and young adults undergoing ablation of supraventricular tachycardia. Europace 16:277–283, 2014.
42.
Jaeggi ET, Gilljam T, Bauersfeld U, Chiu C, Gow R. Electrocardiographic differentiation of typical atrioventricular node reentrant tachycardia from atrioventricular reciprocating tachycardia mediated by concealed accessory pathway in children. Am J Cardiol 91:1084–1089, 2003.
43.
Buddhe S, Singh H, Du W, Karpawich PP. Radiofrequency and cryoablation therapies for supraventricular arrhythmias in the young: Five-year review of efficacies. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 35:711–717, 2012.
44.
Backhoff D, Klehs S, Muller MJ, Schneider HE, Kriebel T, Paul T, Krause U. Long-term follow-up after catheter ablation of atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia in children. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 92016.
45.
Drago F. Paediatric catheter cryoablation: Techniques, successes and failures. Curr Opin Cardiol 23:81–84, 2008.
46.
Drago F, Placidi S, Righi D, C DIM, Russo MS, Silvetti MS, Palmieri R, Prosperi M. Cryoablation of avnrt in children and adolescents: Early intervention leads to a better outcome. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 25:398–403, 2014.
47.
Blomstrom-Lundqvist C, Scheinman MM, Aliot EM, Alpert JS, Calkins H, Camm AJ, Campbell WB, Haines DE, Kuck KH, Lerman BB, Miller DD, Shaeffer CW, Stevenson WG, Tomaselli GF, Antman EM, Smith SC, Jr., Alpert JS, Faxon DP, Fuster V, Gibbons RJ, Gregoratos G, Hiratzka LF, Hunt SA, Jacobs AK, Russell RO, Jr., Priori SG, Blanc JJ, Budaj A, Burgos EF, Cowie M, Deckers JW, Garcia MA, Klein WW, Lekakis J, Lindahl B, Mazzotta G, Morais JC, Oto A, Smiseth O, Trappe HJ, European Society of Cardiology Committee N-HRS. Acc/aha/esc guidelines for the management of patients with supraventricular arrhythmias--executive summary. A report of the american college of cardiology/american heart association task force on practice guidelines and the european society of cardiology committee for practice guidelines (writing committee to develop guidelines for the management of patients with supraventricular arrhythmias) developed in collaboration with naspe-heart rhythm society. J Am Coll Cardiol 42:1493–1531, 2003.
48.
Vaksmann G, D'Hoinne C, Lucet V, Guillaumont S, Lupoglazoff JM, Chantepie A, Denjoy I, Villain E, Marcon F. Permanent junctional reciprocating tachycardia in children: A multicentre study on clinical profile and outcome. Heart 92:101–104, 2006.
49.
Salerno JC, Kertesz NJ, Friedman RA, Fenrich AL, Jr. Clinical course of atrial ectopic tachycardia is age-dependent: Results and treatment in children < 3 or > or =3 years of age. J Am Coll Cardiol 43:438–444, 2004.
50.
Bohora S, Lokhandwala Y, Parekh P, Vasavda A. Reversal of tachycardiomyopathy due to left atrial tachycardia by ivabradine. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 22:340–342, 2011.
51.
Dieks JK, Klehs S, Muller MJ, Paul T, Krause U. Adjunctive ivabradine in combination with amiodarone: A novel therapy for pediatric congenital junctional ectopic tachycardia. Heart Rhythm 13:1297–1302, 2016.
52.
Pfammatter JP, Paul T, Ziemer G, Kallfelz HC. Successful management of junctional tachycardia by hypothermia after cardiac operations in infants. Ann Thorac Surg 60:556–560, 1995.
53.
Janousek J, Vojtovic P, Gebauer RA. Use of a modified, commercially available temporary pacemaker for r wave synchronized atrial pacing in postoperative junctional ectopic tachycardia. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 26:579–586, 2003.
54.
Saul JP, Scott WA, Brown S, Marantz P, Acevedo V, Etheridge SP, Perry JC, Triedman JK, Burriss SW, Cargo P, Graepel J, Koskelo EK, Wang R, Intravenous Amiodarone Pediatric I. Intravenous amiodarone for incessant tachyarrhythmias in children: A randomized, double-blind, antiarrhythmic drug trial. Circulation 112:3470–3477, 2005.
55.
Kovacikova L, Hakacova N, Dobos D, Skrak P, Zahorec M. Amiodarone as a first-line therapy for postoperative junctional ectopic tachycardia. Ann Thorac Surg 88:616–622, 2009.
56.
Ramusovic S, Laer S, Meibohm B, Lagler FB, Paul T. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous amiodarone in children. Arch Dis Child 98:989–993, 2013.
57.
Walsh EP, Saul JP, Sholler GF, Triedman JK, Jonas RA, Mayer JE, Wessel DL. Evaluation of a staged treatment protocol for rapid automatic junctional tachycardia after operation for congenital heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 29:1046–1053, 1997.
58.
Entenmann A, Michel M, Herberg U, Haas N, Kumpf M, Gass M, Egender F, Gebauer R. Management of postoperative junctional ectopic tachycardia in pediatric patients: A survey of 30 centers in germany, austria, and switzerland. Eur J Pediatr 176:1217–1226, 2017.
59.
Paul T, Pfammatter JP. Adenosine: An effective and safe antiarrhythmic drug in pediatrics. Pediatr Cardiol 18:118–126, 1997.
60.
Johnson WH, Jr., Dunnigan A, Fehr P, Benson DW, Jr. Association of atrial flutter with orthodromic reciprocating fetal tachycardia. Am J Cardiol 59:374–375, 1987.
61.
Naheed ZJ, Strasburger JF, Deal BJ, Benson DW, Jr., Gidding SS. Fetal tachycardia: Mechanisms and predictors of hydrops fetalis. J Am Coll Cardiol 27:1736–1740, 1996.
62.
Wacker-Gussmann A, Strasburger JF, Srinivasan S, Cuneo BF, Lutter W, Wakai RT. Fetal atrial flutter: Electrophysiology and associations with rhythms involving an accessory pathway. J Am Heart Assoc 52016.
63.
Strasburger JF, Cuneo BF, Michon MM, Gotteiner NL, Deal BJ, McGregor SN, Oudijk MA, Meijboom EJ, Feinkind L, Hussey M, Parilla BV. Amiodarone therapy for drug-refractory fetal tachycardia. Circulation 109:375–379, 2004.
64.
Jaeggi E, Ohman A. Fetal and neonatal arrhythmias. Clin Perinatol 43:99–112, 2016.
65.
Garson A, Jr., Bink-Boelkens M, Hesslein PS, Hordof AJ, Keane JF, Neches WH, Porter CJ. Atrial flutter in the young: A collaborative study of 380 cases. J Am Coll Cardiol 6:871–878, 1985.
66.
Hernandez-Madrid A, Paul T, Abrams D, Aziz PF, Blom NA, Chen J, Chessa M, Combes N, Dagres N, Diller G, Ernst S, Giamberti A, Hebe J, Janousek J, Kriebel T, Moltedo J, Moreno J, Peinado R, Pison L, Rosenthal E, Skinner JR, Zeppenfeld K, Group ESCSD. Arrhythmias in congenital heart disease: A position paper of the european heart rhythm association (ehra), association for european paediatric and congenital cardiology (aepc), and the european society of cardiology (esc) working group on grown-up congenital heart disease, endorsed by hrs, paces, aphrs, and solaece. Europace 2018.
67.
Tai CT, Chen SA. Cavotricuspid isthmus: Anatomy, electrophysiology, and long-term outcome of radiofrequency ablation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 32:1591–1595, 2009.
68.
Patel NJ, Deshmukh A, Pau D, Goyal V, Patel SV, Patel N, Agnihotri K, Asirvatham S, Noseworthy P, Di Biase L, Natale A, Viles-Gonzalez JF. Contemporary utilization and safety outcomes of catheter ablation of atrial flutter in the united states: Analysis of 89,638 procedures. Heart Rhythm 13:1317–1325, 2016.
69.
Paul T, Windhagen-Mahnert B, Kriebel T, Bertram H, Kaulitz R, Korte T, Niehaus M, Tebbenjohanns J. Atrial reentrant tachycardia after surgery for congenital heart disease: Endocardial mapping and radiofrequency catheter ablation using a novel, noncontact mapping system. Circulation 103:2266–2271, 2001.
70.
Abrams DJ, Earley MJ, Sporton SC, Kistler PM, Gatzoulis MA, Mullen MJ, Till JA, Cullen S, Walker F, Lowe MD, Deanfield JE, Schilling RJ. Comparison of noncontact and electroanatomic mapping to identify scar and arrhythmia late after the fontan procedure. Circulation 115:1738–1746, 2007.
71.
Triedman JK, Alexander ME, Love BA, Collins KK, Berul CI, Bevilacqua LM, Walsh EP. Influence of patient factors and ablative technologies on outcomes of radiofrequency ablation of intra-atrial re-entrant tachycardia in patients with congenital heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 39:1827–1835, 2002.
72.
Correa R, Sherwin ED, Kovach J, Mah DY, Alexander ME, Cecchin F, Walsh EP, Triedman JK, Abrams DJ. Mechanism and ablation of arrhythmia following total cavopulmonary connection. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 8:318–325, 2015.
73.
Gallotti RG, Madnawat H, Shannon KM, Aboulhosn JA, Nik-Ahd F, Moore JP. Mechanisms and predictors of recurrent tachycardia after catheter ablation for d-transposition of the great arteries after the mustard or senning operation. Heart Rhythm 14:350–356, 2017.
74.
Deal BJ, Mavroudis C, Backer CL. The role of concomitant arrhythmia surgery in patients undergoing repair of congenital heart disease. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 31 Suppl 1:S13–16, 2008.
75.
Deal BJ, Mavroudis C. Arrhythmia surgery for adults with congenital heart disease. Card Electrophysiol Clin 9:329–340, 2017.
76.
Khairy P, Aboulhosn J, Gurvitz MZ, Opotowsky AR, Mongeon FP, Kay J, Valente AM, Earing MG, Lui G, Gersony DR, Cook S, Ting JG, Nickolaus MJ, Webb G, Landzberg MJ, Broberg CS, Alliance for Adult Research in Congenital C. Arrhythmia burden in adults with surgically repaired tetralogy of fallot: A multi-institutional study. Circulation 122:868–875, 2010.
77.
Labombarda F, Hamilton R, Shohoudi A, Aboulhosn J, Broberg CS, Chaix MA, Cohen S, Cook S, Dore A, Fernandes SM, Fournier A, Kay J, Macle L, Mondesert B, Mongeon FP, Opotowsky AR, Proietti A, Rivard L, Ting J, Thibault B, Zaidi A, Khairy P, Aarcc. Increasing prevalence of atrial fibrillation and permanent atrial arrhythmias in congenital heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 70:857–865, 2017.
78.
Khairy P, Van Hare GF, Balaji S, Berul CI, Cecchin F, Cohen MI, Daniels CJ, Deal BJ, Dearani JA, Groot N, Dubin AM, Harris L, Janousek J, Kanter RJ, Karpawich PP, Perry JC, Seslar SP, Shah MJ, Silka MJ, Triedman JK, Walsh EP, Warnes CA. Paces/hrs expert consensus statement on the recognition and management of arrhythmias in adult congenital heart disease: Developed in partnership between the pediatric and congenital electrophysiology society (paces) and the heart rhythm society (hrs). Endorsed by the governing bodies of paces, hrs, the american college of cardiology (acc), the american heart association (aha), the european heart rhythm association (ehra), the canadian heart rhythm society (chrs), and the international society for adult congenital heart disease (isachd). Heart Rhythm 11:e102–165, 2014.
79.
Kirchhof P, Benussi S, Kotecha D, Ahlsson A, Atar D, Casadei B, Castella M, Diener HC, Heidbuchel H, Hendriks J, Hindricks G, Manolis AS, Oldgren J, Popescu BA, Schotten U, Van Putte B, Vardas P, Agewall S, Camm J, Baron Esquivias G, Budts W, Carerj S, Casselman F, Coca A, De Caterina R, Deftereos S, Dobrev D, Ferro JM, Filippatos G, Fitzsimons D, Gorenek B, Guenoun M, Hohnloser SH, Kolh P, Lip GY, Manolis A, McMurray J, Ponikowski P, Rosenhek R, Ruschitzka F, Savelieva I, Sharma S, Suwalski P, Tamargo JL, Taylor CJ, Van Gelder IC, Voors AA, Windecker S, Zamorano JL, Zeppenfeld K. 2016 esc guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with eacts. Europace 18:1609–1678, 2016.
80.
Anderson JL, Halperin JL, Albert NM, Bozkurt B, Brindis RG, Curtis LH, DeMets D, Guyton RA, Hochman JS, Kovacs RJ, Ohman EM, Pressler SJ, Sellke FW, Shen WK, Wann LS, Curtis AB, Ellenbogen KA, Estes NA, 3rd, Ezekowitz MD, Jackman WM, January CT, Lowe JE, Page RL, Slotwiner DJ, Stevenson WG, Tracy CM, Fuster V, Ryden LE, Cannom DS, Crijns HJ, Curtis AB, Ellenbogen KA, Le Heuzey JY, Kay GN, Olsson SB, Prystowsky EN, Tamargo JL, Wann S. Management of patients with atrial fibrillation (compilation of 2006 accf/aha/esc and 2011 accf/aha/hrs recommendations): A report of the american college of cardiology/american heart association task force on practice guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 61:1935–1944, 2013.
81.
Priori SG, Blomstrom-Lundqvist C, Mazzanti A, Blom N, Borggrefe M, Camm J, Elliott PM, Fitzsimons D, Hatala R, Hindricks G, Kirchhof P, Kjeldsen K, Kuck KH, Hernandez-Madrid A, Nikolaou N, Norekval TM, Spaulding C, Van Veldhuisen DJ, Task Force for the Management of Patients with Ventricular A, the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death of the European Society of C. 2015 esc guidelines for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: The task force for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death of the european society of cardiology (esc)endorsed by: Association for european paediatric and congenital cardiology (aepc). Europace 17:1601–1687, 2015.
82.
Simpson JM, Maxwell D, Rosenthal E, Gill H. Fetal ventricular tachycardia secondary to long qt syndrome treated with maternal intravenous magnesium: Case report and review of the literature. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 34:475–480, 2009.
83.
Miyoshi T, Sakaguchi H, Shiraishi I, Yoshimatsu J, Ikeda T. Potential utility of pulsed doppler for prenatal diagnosis of fetal ventricular tachycardia secondary to long qt syndrome. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2017.
84.
Biarent D, Bingham R, Eich C, Lopez-Herce J, Maconochie I, Rodriguez-Nunez A, Rajka T, Zideman D. European resuscitation council guidelines for resuscitation 2010 section 6. Paediatric life support. Resuscitation 81:1364–1388, 2010.
85.
Australian Resuscitation C, New Zealand Resuscitation C. Management of specific dysrhythmias in paediatric advanced life support. Arc and nzrc guideline 2010. Emerg Med Australas 23:409–411, 2011.
86.
Pfammatter JP, Paul T. Idiopathic ventricular tachycardia in infancy and childhood: A multicenter study on clinical profile and outcome. Working group on dysrhythmias and electrophysiology of the association for european pediatric cardiology. J Am Coll Cardiol 33:2067–2072, 1999.
87.
Wang S, Zhu W, Hamilton RM, Kirsh JA, Stephenson EA, Gross GJ. Diagnosis-specific characteristics of ventricular tachycardia in children with structurally normal hearts. Heart Rhythm 7:1725–1731, 2010.
88.
Crosson JE, Callans DJ, Bradley DJ, Dubin A, Epstein M, Etheridge S, Papez A, Phillips JR, Rhodes LA, Saul P, Stephenson E, Stevenson W, Zimmerman F. Paces/hrs expert consensus statement on the evaluation and management of ventricular arrhythmias in the child with a structurally normal heart. Heart Rhythm 11:e55–78, 2014.
89.
Schneider HE, Kriebel T, Jung K, Gravenhorst VD, Paul T. Catheter ablation of idiopathic left and right ventricular tachycardias in the pediatric population using noncontact mapping. Heart Rhythm 7:731–739, 2010.
90.
Epstein AE, DiMarco JP, Ellenbogen KA, Estes NA, 3rd, Freedman RA, Gettes LS, Gillinov AM, Gregoratos G, Hammill SC, Hayes DL, Hlatky MA, Newby LK, Page RL, Schoenfeld MH, Silka MJ, Stevenson LW, Sweeney MO, Tracy CM, Epstein AE, Darbar D, DiMarco JP, Dunbar SB, Estes NA, 3rd, Ferguson TB, Jr., Hammill SC, Karasik PE, Link MS, Marine JE, Schoenfeld MH, Shanker AJ, Silka MJ, Stevenson LW, Stevenson WG, Varosy PD, American College of Cardiology F, American Heart Association Task Force on Practice G, Heart Rhythm S. 2012 accf/aha/hrs focused update incorporated into the accf/aha/hrs 2008 guidelines for device-based therapy of cardiac rhythm abnormalities: A report of the american college of cardiology foundation/american heart association task force on practice guidelines and the heart rhythm society. J Am Coll Cardiol 61:e6–75, 2013.
91.
Giustetto C, Di Monte F, Wolpert C, Borggrefe M, Schimpf R, Sbragia P, Leone G, Maury P, Anttonen O, Haissaguerre M, Gaita F. Short qt syndrome: Clinical findings and diagnostic-therapeutic implications. Eur Heart J 27:2440–2447, 2006.
92.
Goldenberg I, Moss AJ. Long qt syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 51:2291–2300, 2008.
93.
Kaufman ES. Mechanisms and clinical management of inherited channelopathies: Long qt syndrome, brugada syndrome, catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, and short qt syndrome. Heart Rhythm 6:S51–55, 2009.
94.
Priori SG, Schwartz PJ, Napolitano C, Bloise R, Ronchetti E, Grillo M, Vicentini A, Spazzolini C, Nastoli J, Bottelli G, Folli R, Cappelletti D. Risk stratification in the long-qt syndrome. N Engl J Med 348:1866–1874, 2003.
95.
Priori SG, Wilde AA, Horie M, Cho Y, Behr ER, Berul C, Blom N, Brugada J, Chiang CE, Huikuri H, Kannankeril P, Krahn A, Leenhardt A, Moss A, Schwartz PJ, Shimizu W, Tomaselli G, Tracy C, Document R, Ackerman M, Belhassen B, Estes NA, 3rd, Fatkin D, Kalman J, Kaufman E, Kirchhof P, Schulze-Bahr E, Wolpert C, Vohra J, Refaat M, Etheridge SP, Campbell RM, Martin ET, Quek SC, Heart Rhythm S, European Heart Rhythm A, Asia Pacific Heart Rhythm S. Executive summary: Hrs/ehra/aphrs expert consensus statement on the diagnosis and management of patients with inherited primary arrhythmia syndromes. Europace 15:1389–1406, 2013.
96.
Zareba W, Moss AJ, Locati EH, Lehmann MH, Peterson DR, Hall WJ, Schwartz PJ, Vincent GM, Priori SG, Benhorin J, Towbin JA, Robinson JL, Andrews ML, Napolitano C, Timothy K, Zhang L, Medina A, International Long QTSR. Modulating effects of age and gender on the clinical course of long qt syndrome by genotype. J Am Coll Cardiol 42:103–109, 2003.
97.
Goldenberg I, Moss AJ, Zareba W. Qt interval: How to measure it and what is "normal". J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 17:333–336, 2006.
98.
Zhang L, Timothy KW, Vincent GM, Lehmann MH, Fox J, Giuli LC, Shen J, Splawski I, Priori SG, Compton SJ, Yanowitz F, Benhorin J, Moss AJ, Schwartz PJ, Robinson JL, Wang Q, Zareba W, Keating MT, Towbin JA, Napolitano C, Medina A. Spectrum of st-t-wave patterns and repolarization parameters in congenital long-qt syndrome: Ecg findings identify genotypes. Circulation 102:2849–2855, 2000.
99.
Schwartz PJ, Moss AJ, Vincent GM, Crampton RS. Diagnostic criteria for the long qt syndrome. An update. Circulation 88:782–784, 1993.
100.
Priori SG, Napolitano C, Schwartz PJ. Low penetrance in the long-qt syndrome: Clinical impact. Circulation 99:529–533, 1999.
101.
Vyas H, Hejlik J, Ackerman MJ. Epinephrine qt stress testing in the evaluation of congenital long-qt syndrome: Diagnostic accuracy of the paradoxical qt response. Circulation 113:1385-1392, 2006.
102.
Viskin S, Postema PG, Bhuiyan ZA, Rosso R, Kalman JM, Vohra JK, Guevara-Valdivia ME, Marquez MF, Kogan E, Belhassen B, Glikson M, Strasberg B, Antzelevitch C, Wilde AA. The response of the qt interval to the brief tachycardia provoked by standing: A bedside test for diagnosing long qt syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 55:1955–1961, 2010.
103.
Shimizu W, Noda T, Takaki H, Nagaya N, Satomi K, Kurita T, Suyama K, Aihara N, Sunagawa K, Echigo S, Miyamoto Y, Yoshimasa Y, Nakamura K, Ohe T, Towbin JA, Priori SG, Kamakura S. Diagnostic value of epinephrine test for genotyping lqt1, lqt2, and lqt3 forms of congenital long qt syndrome. Heart Rhythm 1:276–283, 2004.
104.
Moss AJ, Shimizu W, Wilde AA, Towbin JA, Zareba W, Robinson JL, Qi M, Vincent GM, Ackerman MJ, Kaufman ES, Hofman N, Seth R, Kamakura S, Miyamoto Y, Goldenberg I, Andrews ML, McNitt S. Clinical aspects of type-1 long-qt syndrome by location, coding type, and biophysical function of mutations involving the kcnq1 gene. Circulation 115:2481–2489, 2007.
105.
Vincent GM, Schwartz PJ, Denjoy I, Swan H, Bithell C, Spazzolini C, Crotti L, Piippo K, Lupoglazoff JM, Villain E, Priori SG, Napolitano C, Zhang L. High efficacy of beta-blockers in long-qt syndrome type 1: Contribution of noncompliance and qt-prolonging drugs to the occurrence of beta-blocker treatment "failures". Circulation 119:215–221, 2009.
106.
Chockalingam P, Crotti L, Girardengo G, Johnson JN, Harris KM, van der Heijden JF, Hauer RN, Beckmann BM, Spazzolini C, Rordorf R, Rydberg A, Clur SA, Fischer M, van den Heuvel F, Kaab S, Blom NA, Ackerman MJ, Schwartz PJ, Wilde AA. Not all beta-blockers are equal in the management of long qt syndrome types 1 and 2: Higher recurrence of events under metoprolol. J Am Coll Cardiol 60:2092–2099, 2012.
107.
Shimizu W, Aiba T, Antzelevitch C. Specific therapy based on the genotype and cellular mechanism in inherited cardiac arrhythmias. Long qt syndrome and brugada syndrome. Curr Pharm Des 11:1561–1572, 2005.
108.
Schwartz PJ, Spazzolini C, Crotti L. All lqt3 patients need an icd: True or false? Heart Rhythm 6:113–120, 2009.
109.
Lampert R, Olshansky B, Heidbuchel H, Lawless C, Saarel E, Ackerman M, Calkins H, Estes NAM, Link MS, Maron BJ, Marcus F, Scheinman M, Wilkoff BL, Zipes DP, Berul CI, Cheng A, Jordaens L, Law I, Loomis M, Willems R, Barth C, Broos K, Brandt C, Dziura J, Li F, Simone L, Vandenberghe K, Cannom D. Safety of sports for athletes with implantable cardioverter-defibrillators: Long-term results of a prospective multinational registry. Circulation 135:2310–2312, 2017.
110.
Villafane J, Atallah J, Gollob MH, Maury P, Wolpert C, Gebauer R, Watanabe H, Horie M, Anttonen O, Kannankeril P, Faulknier B, Bleiz J, Makiyama T, Shimizu W, Hamilton RM, Young ML. Long-term follow-up of a pediatric cohort with short qt syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 61:1183–1191, 2013.
111.
Kaufman ES. Quinidine in short qt syndrome: An old drug for a new disease. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 18:665–666, 2007.
112.
Mazzanti A, Kanthan A, Monteforte N, Memmi M, Bloise R, Novelli V, Miceli C, O'Rourke S, Borio G, Zienciuk-Krajka A, Curcio A, Surducan AE, Colombo M, Napolitano C, Priori SG. Novel insight into the natural history of short qt syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 63:1300–1308, 2014.
113.
Zipes DP, Camm AJ, Borggrefe M, Buxton AE, Chaitman B, Fromer M, Gregoratos G, Klein G, Moss AJ, Myerburg RJ, Priori SG, Quinones MA, Roden DM, Silka MJ, Tracy C, Smith SC, Jr., Jacobs AK, Adams CD, Antman EM, Anderson JL, Hunt SA, Halperin JL, Nishimura R, Ornato JP, Page RL, Riegel B, Blanc JJ, Budaj A, Dean V, Deckers JW, Despres C, Dickstein K, Lekakis J, McGregor K, Metra M, Morais J, Osterspey A, Tamargo JL, Zamorano JL, American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task F, European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice G, European Heart Rhythm A, Heart Rhythm S. Acc/aha/esc 2006 guidelines for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: A report of the american college of cardiology/american heart association task force and the european society of cardiology committee for practice guidelines (writing committee to develop guidelines for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death): Developed in collaboration with the european heart rhythm association and the heart rhythm society. Circulation 114:e385–484, 2006.
114.
Probst V, Denjoy I, Meregalli PG, Amirault JC, Sacher F, Mansourati J, Babuty D, Villain E, Victor J, Schott JJ, Lupoglazoff JM, Mabo P, Veltmann C, Jesel L, Chevalier P, Clur SA, Haissaguerre M, Wolpert C, Le Marec H, Wilde AA. Clinical aspects and prognosis of brugada syndrome in children. Circulation 115:2042–2048, 2007.
115.
Ohgo T, Okamura H, Noda T, Satomi K, Suyama K, Kurita T, Aihara N, Kamakura S, Ohe T, Shimizu W. Acute and chronic management in patients with brugada syndrome associated with electrical storm of ventricular fibrillation. Heart Rhythm 4:695–700, 2007.
116.
Roston TM, Vinocur JM, Maginot KR, Mohammed S, Salerno JC, Etheridge SP, Cohen M, Hamilton RM, Pflaumer A, Kanter RJ, Potts JE, LaPage MJ, Collins KK, Gebauer RA, Temple JD, Batra AS, Erickson C, Miszczak-Knecht M, Kubus P, Bar-Cohen Y, Kantoch M, Thomas VC, Hessling G, Anderson C, Young ML, Cabrera Ortega M, Lau YR, Johnsrude CL, Fournier A, Kannankeril PJ, Sanatani S. Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia in children: Analysis of therapeutic strategies and outcomes from an international multicenter registry. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 8:633–642, 2015.
117.
van der Werf C, Kannankeril PJ, Sacher F, Krahn AD, Viskin S, Leenhardt A, Shimizu W, Sumitomo N, Fish FA, Bhuiyan ZA, Willems AR, van der Veen MJ, Watanabe H, Laborderie J, Haissaguerre M, Knollmann BC, Wilde AA. Flecainide therapy reduces exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmias in patients with catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia. J Am Coll Cardiol 57:2244–2254, 2011.
118.
Watanabe H, Chopra N, Laver D, Hwang HS, Davies SS, Roach DE, Duff HJ, Roden DM, Wilde AA, Knollmann BC. Flecainide prevents catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia in mice and humans. Nat Med 15:380–383, 2009.
119.
Miyake CY, Webster G, Czosek RJ, Kantoch MJ, Dubin AM, Avasarala K, Atallah J. Efficacy of implantable cardioverter defibrillators in young patients with catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia: Success depends on substrate. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 6:579-587, 2013.
120.
Sen-Chowdhry S, Syrris P, Prasad SK, Hughes SE, Merrifield R, Ward D, Pennell DJ, McKenna WJ. Left-dominant arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy: An under-recognized clinical entity. J Am Coll Cardiol 52:2175–2187, 2008.
121.
Peters S, Trummel M, Koehler B, Westermann KU. The value of different electrocardiographic depolarization criteria in the diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. J Electrocardiol 40:34–37, 2007.
122.
Marcus FI, McKenna WJ, Sherrill D, Basso C, Bauce B, Bluemke DA, Calkins H, Corrado D, Cox MG, Daubert JP, Fontaine G, Gear K, Hauer R, Nava A, Picard MH, Protonotarios N, Saffitz JE, Sanborn DM, Steinberg JS, Tandri H, Thiene G, Towbin JA, Tsatsopoulou A, Wichter T, Zareba W. Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia: Proposed modification of the task force criteria. Eur Heart J 31:806–814, 2010.
123.
Kirubakaran S, Bisceglia C, Silberbauer J, Oloriz T, Santagostino G, Yamase M, Maccabelli G, Trevisi N, Della Bella P. Characterization of the arrhythmogenic substrate in patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy undergoing ventricular tachycardia ablation. Europace 19:1049–1062, 2017.
124.
Hodgkinson KA, Parfrey PS, Bassett AS, Kupprion C, Drenckhahn J, Norman MW, Thierfelder L, Stuckless SN, Dicks EL, McKenna WJ, Connors SP. The impact of implantable cardioverter-defibrillator therapy on survival in autosomal-dominant arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (arvd5). J Am Coll Cardiol 45:400–408, 2005.
125.
Hulot JS, Jouven X, Empana JP, Frank R, Fontaine G. Natural history and risk stratification of arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Circulation 110:1879–1884, 2004.
126.
Maron BJ, McKenna WJ, Danielson GK, Kappenberger LJ, Kuhn HJ, Seidman CE, Shah PM, Spencer WH, 3rd, Spirito P, Ten Cate FJ, Wigle ED, American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus D, European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice G. American college of cardiology/european society of cardiology clinical expert consensus document on hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. A report of the american college of cardiology foundation task force on clinical expert consensus documents and the european society of cardiology committee for practice guidelines. Eur Heart J 24:1965–1991, 2003.
127.
Ostman-Smith I. Beta-blockers in pediatric hypertrophic cardiomyopathies. Rev Recent Clin Trials 9:82–85, 2014.
128.
Pedersen CT, Kay GN, Kalman J, Borggrefe M, Della-Bella P, Dickfeld T, Dorian P, Huikuri H, Kim YH, Knight B, Marchlinski F, Ross D, Sacher F, Sapp J, Shivkumar K, Soejima K, Tada H, Alexander ME, Triedman JK, Yamada T, Kirchhof P, Document R, Lip GY, Kuck KH, Mont L, Haines D, Indik J, Dimarco J, Exner D, Iesaka Y, Savelieva I. Ehra/hrs/aphrs expert consensus on ventricular arrhythmias. Europace 16:1257–1283, 2014.
129.
Bardy GH, Lee KL, Mark DB, Poole JE, Packer DL, Boineau R, Domanski M, Troutman C, Anderson J, Johnson G, McNulty SE, Clapp-Channing N, Davidson-Ray LD, Fraulo ES, Fishbein DP, Luceri RM, Ip JH, Sudden Cardiac Death in Heart Failure Trial I. Amiodarone or an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 352:225–237, 2005.
130.
Kadish A, Dyer A, Daubert JP, Quigg R, Estes NA, Anderson KP, Calkins H, Hoch D, Goldberger J, Shalaby A, Sanders WE, Schaechter A, Levine JH, Defibrillators in Non-Ischemic Cardiomyopathy Treatment Evaluation I. Prophylactic defibrillator implantation in patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 350:2151–2158, 2004.
131.
Rhee EK, Canter CE, Basile S, Webber SA, Naftel DC. Sudden death prior to pediatric heart transplantation: Would implantable defibrillators improve outcome? J Heart Lung Transplant 26:447–452, 2007.
132.
Brugada J, Blom N, Sarquella-Brugada G, Blomstrom-Lundqvist C, Deanfield J, Janousek J, Abrams D, Bauersfeld U, Brugada R, Drago F, de Groot N, Happonen JM, Hebe J, Yen Ho S, Marijon E, Paul T, Pfammatter JP, Rosenthal E. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapy for arrhythmias in the pediatric population: Ehra and aepc-arrhythmia working group joint consensus statement. Europace 15:1337–1382, 2013.
133.
Gatzoulis MA, Balaji S, Webber SA, Siu SC, Hokanson JS, Poile C, Rosenthal M, Nakazawa M, Moller JH, Gillette PC, Webb GD, Redington AN. Risk factors for arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death late after repair of tetralogy of fallot: A multicentre study. Lancet 356:975–981, 2000.
134.
Khairy P, Harris L, Landzberg MJ, Viswanathan S, Barlow A, Gatzoulis MA, Fernandes SM, Beauchesne L, Therrien J, Chetaille P, Gordon E, Vonder Muhll I, Cecchin F. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators in tetralogy of fallot. Circulation 117:363–370, 2008.
135.
Harrild DM, Berul CI, Cecchin F, Geva T, Gauvreau K, Pigula F, Walsh EP. Pulmonary valve replacement in tetralogy of fallot: Impact on survival and ventricular tachycardia. Circulation 119:445–451, 2009.
136.
Kapel GF, Sacher F, Dekkers OM, Watanabe M, Blom NA, Thambo JB, Derval N, Schalij MJ, Jalal Z, Wijnmaalen AP, Zeppenfeld K. Arrhythmogenic anatomical isthmuses identified by electroanatomical mapping are the substrate for ventricular tachycardia in repaired tetralogy of fallot. Eur Heart J 38:268–276, 2017.
137.
Echt DS, Liebson PR, Mitchell LB, Peters RW, Obias-Manno D, Barker AH, Arensberg D, Baker A, Friedman L, Greene HL, et al. Mortality and morbidity in patients receiving encainide, flecainide, or placebo. The cardiac arrhythmia suppression trial. N Engl J Med 324:781–788, 1991.
138.
Reimer A, Paul T, Kallfelz HC. Efficacy and safety of intravenous and oral propafenone in pediatric cardiac dysrhythmias. Am J Cardiol 68:741–744, 1991.
139.
Till JA, Rowland E, Shinebourne EA. Use of flecainide in children. Lancet 2:326, 1989.
140.
Leitner RP, Hawker RE, Celermajer JM. Intravenous verapamil in the treatment of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia in children. Aust Paediatr J 19:40–44, 1983.
141.
Cuneo BF, Zales VR, Blahunka PC, Benson DW, Jr. Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of esmolol, a short-acting beta-blocking agent, in children. Pediatr Cardiol 15:296–301, 1994.
142.
Cunningham T, Uzun O, Morris R, Franciosi S, Wong A, Jeremiasen I, Sherwin E, Sanatani S. The safety and effectiveness of flecainide in children in the current era. Pediatr Cardiol 38:1633–1638, 2017.
143.
Janousek J, Paul T. Safety of oral propafenone in the treatment of arrhythmias in infants and children (european retrospective multicenter study). Working group on pediatric arrhythmias and electrophysiology of the association of european pediatric cardiologists. Am J Cardiol 81:1121–1124, 1998.
144.
Paul T, Janousek J. New antiarrhythmic drugs in pediatric use: Propafenone. Pediatr Cardiol 15:190–197, 1994.
145.
Paul T, Guccione P. New antiarrhythmic drugs in pediatric use: Amiodarone. Pediatr Cardiol 15:132–138, 1994.
146.
Pfammatter JP, Paul T. New antiarrhythmic drug in pediatric use: Sotalol. Pediatr Cardiol 18:28–34, 1997.
147.
Sapire DW, O'Riordan AC, Black IF. Safety and efficacy of short- and long-term verapamil therapy in children with tachycardia. Am J Cardiol 48:1091–1097, 1981.